4: GETTING THE CODE RIGHT
  
  While there is much to be said for a solid and community-oriented design
  process, the proof of any kernel development project is in the resulting
  code.  It is the code which will be examined by other developers and merged
  (or not) into the mainline tree.  So it is the quality of this code which
  will determine the ultimate success of the project.
  
  This section will examine the coding process.  We'll start with a look at a
  number of ways in which kernel developers can go wrong.  Then the focus
  will shift toward doing things right and the tools which can help in that
  quest.
  
  
  4.1: PITFALLS
  
  * Coding style
  
  The kernel has long had a standard coding style, described in
  Documentation/CodingStyle.  For much of that time, the policies described
  in that file were taken as being, at most, advisory.  As a result, there is
  a substantial amount of code in the kernel which does not meet the coding
  style guidelines.  The presence of that code leads to two independent
  hazards for kernel developers.
  
  The first of these is to believe that the kernel coding standards do not
  matter and are not enforced.  The truth of the matter is that adding new
  code to the kernel is very difficult if that code is not coded according to
  the standard; many developers will request that the code be reformatted
  before they will even review it.  A code base as large as the kernel
  requires some uniformity of code to make it possible for developers to
  quickly understand any part of it.  So there is no longer room for
  strangely-formatted code.
  
  Occasionally, the kernel's coding style will run into conflict with an
  employer's mandated style.  In such cases, the kernel's style will have to
  win before the code can be merged.  Putting code into the kernel means
  giving up a degree of control in a number of ways - including control over
  how the code is formatted.
  
  The other trap is to assume that code which is already in the kernel is
  urgently in need of coding style fixes.  Developers may start to generate
  reformatting patches as a way of gaining familiarity with the process, or
  as a way of getting their name into the kernel changelogs - or both.  But
  pure coding style fixes are seen as noise by the development community;
  they tend to get a chilly reception.  So this type of patch is best
  avoided.  It is natural to fix the style of a piece of code while working
  on it for other reasons, but coding style changes should not be made for
  their own sake.
  
  The coding style document also should not be read as an absolute law which
  can never be transgressed.  If there is a good reason to go against the
  style (a line which becomes far less readable if split to fit within the
  80-column limit, for example), just do it.
  
  
  * Abstraction layers
  
  Computer Science professors teach students to make extensive use of
  abstraction layers in the name of flexibility and information hiding.
  Certainly the kernel makes extensive use of abstraction; no project
  involving several million lines of code could do otherwise and survive.
  But experience has shown that excessive or premature abstraction can be
  just as harmful as premature optimization.  Abstraction should be used to
  the level required and no further.
  
  At a simple level, consider a function which has an argument which is
  always passed as zero by all callers.  One could retain that argument just
  in case somebody eventually needs to use the extra flexibility that it
  provides.  By that time, though, chances are good that the code which
  implements this extra argument has been broken in some subtle way which was
  never noticed - because it has never been used.  Or, when the need for
  extra flexibility arises, it does not do so in a way which matches the
  programmer's early expectation.  Kernel developers will routinely submit
  patches to remove unused arguments; they should, in general, not be added
  in the first place.
  
  Abstraction layers which hide access to hardware - often to allow the bulk
  of a driver to be used with multiple operating systems - are especially
  frowned upon.  Such layers obscure the code and may impose a performance
  penalty; they do not belong in the Linux kernel.
  
  On the other hand, if you find yourself copying significant amounts of code
  from another kernel subsystem, it is time to ask whether it would, in fact,
  make sense to pull out some of that code into a separate library or to
  implement that functionality at a higher level.  There is no value in
  replicating the same code throughout the kernel.
  
  
  * #ifdef and preprocessor use in general
  
  The C preprocessor seems to present a powerful temptation to some C
  programmers, who see it as a way to efficiently encode a great deal of
  flexibility into a source file.  But the preprocessor is not C, and heavy
  use of it results in code which is much harder for others to read and
  harder for the compiler to check for correctness.  Heavy preprocessor use
  is almost always a sign of code which needs some cleanup work.
  
  Conditional compilation with #ifdef is, indeed, a powerful feature, and it
  is used within the kernel.  But there is little desire to see code which is
  sprinkled liberally with #ifdef blocks.  As a general rule, #ifdef use
  should be confined to header files whenever possible.
  Conditionally-compiled code can be confined to functions which, if the code
  is not to be present, simply become empty.  The compiler will then quietly
  optimize out the call to the empty function.  The result is far cleaner
  code which is easier to follow.
  
  C preprocessor macros present a number of hazards, including possible
  multiple evaluation of expressions with side effects and no type safety.
  If you are tempted to define a macro, consider creating an inline function
  instead.  The code which results will be the same, but inline functions are
  easier to read, do not evaluate their arguments multiple times, and allow
  the compiler to perform type checking on the arguments and return value.
  
  
  * Inline functions
  
  Inline functions present a hazard of their own, though.  Programmers can
  become enamored of the perceived efficiency inherent in avoiding a function
  call and fill a source file with inline functions.  Those functions,
  however, can actually reduce performance.  Since their code is replicated
  at each call site, they end up bloating the size of the compiled kernel.
  That, in turn, creates pressure on the processor's memory caches, which can
  slow execution dramatically.  Inline functions, as a rule, should be quite
  small and relatively rare.  The cost of a function call, after all, is not
  that high; the creation of large numbers of inline functions is a classic
  example of premature optimization.
  
  In general, kernel programmers ignore cache effects at their peril.  The
  classic time/space tradeoff taught in beginning data structures classes
  often does not apply to contemporary hardware.  Space *is* time, in that a
  larger program will run slower than one which is more compact.
  
  More recent compilers take an increasingly active role in deciding whether
  a given function should actually be inlined or not.  So the liberal
  placement of "inline" keywords may not just be excessive; it could also be
  irrelevant.
  
  
  * Locking
  
  In May, 2006, the "Devicescape" networking stack was, with great
  fanfare, released under the GPL and made available for inclusion in the
  mainline kernel.  This donation was welcome news; support for wireless
  networking in Linux was considered substandard at best, and the Devicescape
  stack offered the promise of fixing that situation.  Yet, this code did not
  actually make it into the mainline until June, 2007 (2.6.22).  What
  happened?
  
  This code showed a number of signs of having been developed behind
  corporate doors.  But one large problem in particular was that it was not
  designed to work on multiprocessor systems.  Before this networking stack
  (now called mac80211) could be merged, a locking scheme needed to be
  retrofitted onto it.  
  
  Once upon a time, Linux kernel code could be developed without thinking
  about the concurrency issues presented by multiprocessor systems.  Now,
  however, this document is being written on a dual-core laptop.  Even on
  single-processor systems, work being done to improve responsiveness will
  raise the level of concurrency within the kernel.  The days when kernel
  code could be written without thinking about locking are long past.
  
  Any resource (data structures, hardware registers, etc.) which could be
  accessed concurrently by more than one thread must be protected by a lock.
  New code should be written with this requirement in mind; retrofitting
  locking after the fact is a rather more difficult task.  Kernel developers
  should take the time to understand the available locking primitives well
  enough to pick the right tool for the job.  Code which shows a lack of
  attention to concurrency will have a difficult path into the mainline.
  
  
  * Regressions
  
  One final hazard worth mentioning is this: it can be tempting to make a
  change (which may bring big improvements) which causes something to break
  for existing users.  This kind of change is called a "regression," and
  regressions have become most unwelcome in the mainline kernel.  With few
  exceptions, changes which cause regressions will be backed out if the
  regression cannot be fixed in a timely manner.  Far better to avoid the
  regression in the first place.
  
  It is often argued that a regression can be justified if it causes things
  to work for more people than it creates problems for.  Why not make a
  change if it brings new functionality to ten systems for each one it
  breaks?  The best answer to this question was expressed by Linus in July,
  2007:
  
  	So we don't fix bugs by introducing new problems.  That way lies
  	madness, and nobody ever knows if you actually make any real
  	progress at all. Is it two steps forwards, one step back, or one
  	step forward and two steps back?
  
  (http://lwn.net/Articles/243460/).
  
  An especially unwelcome type of regression is any sort of change to the
  user-space ABI.  Once an interface has been exported to user space, it must
  be supported indefinitely.  This fact makes the creation of user-space
  interfaces particularly challenging: since they cannot be changed in
  incompatible ways, they must be done right the first time.  For this
  reason, a great deal of thought, clear documentation, and wide review for
  user-space interfaces is always required.
  
  
  
  4.2: CODE CHECKING TOOLS
  
  For now, at least, the writing of error-free code remains an ideal that few
  of us can reach.  What we can hope to do, though, is to catch and fix as
  many of those errors as possible before our code goes into the mainline
  kernel.  To that end, the kernel developers have put together an impressive
  array of tools which can catch a wide variety of obscure problems in an
  automated way.  Any problem caught by the computer is a problem which will
  not afflict a user later on, so it stands to reason that the automated
  tools should be used whenever possible.
  
  The first step is simply to heed the warnings produced by the compiler.
  Contemporary versions of gcc can detect (and warn about) a large number of
  potential errors.  Quite often, these warnings point to real problems.
  Code submitted for review should, as a rule, not produce any compiler
  warnings.  When silencing warnings, take care to understand the real cause
  and try to avoid "fixes" which make the warning go away without addressing
  its cause.
  
  Note that not all compiler warnings are enabled by default.  Build the
  kernel with "make EXTRA_CFLAGS=-W" to get the full set.
  
  The kernel provides several configuration options which turn on debugging
  features; most of these are found in the "kernel hacking" submenu.  Several
  of these options should be turned on for any kernel used for development or
  testing purposes.  In particular, you should turn on:
  
   - ENABLE_WARN_DEPRECATED, ENABLE_MUST_CHECK, and FRAME_WARN to get an
     extra set of warnings for problems like the use of deprecated interfaces
     or ignoring an important return value from a function.  The output
     generated by these warnings can be verbose, but one need not worry about
     warnings from other parts of the kernel.
  
   - DEBUG_OBJECTS will add code to track the lifetime of various objects
     created by the kernel and warn when things are done out of order.  If
     you are adding a subsystem which creates (and exports) complex objects
     of its own, consider adding support for the object debugging
     infrastructure.
  
   - DEBUG_SLAB can find a variety of memory allocation and use errors; it
     should be used on most development kernels.
  
   - DEBUG_SPINLOCK, DEBUG_ATOMIC_SLEEP, and DEBUG_MUTEXES will find a
     number of common locking errors.
  
  There are quite a few other debugging options, some of which will be
  discussed below.  Some of them have a significant performance impact and
  should not be used all of the time.  But some time spent learning the
  available options will likely be paid back many times over in short order. 
  
  One of the heavier debugging tools is the locking checker, or "lockdep."
  This tool will track the acquisition and release of every lock (spinlock or
  mutex) in the system, the order in which locks are acquired relative to
  each other, the current interrupt environment, and more.  It can then
  ensure that locks are always acquired in the same order, that the same
  interrupt assumptions apply in all situations, and so on.  In other words,
  lockdep can find a number of scenarios in which the system could, on rare
  occasion, deadlock.  This kind of problem can be painful (for both
  developers and users) in a deployed system; lockdep allows them to be found
  in an automated manner ahead of time.  Code with any sort of non-trivial
  locking should be run with lockdep enabled before being submitted for
  inclusion. 
  
  As a diligent kernel programmer, you will, beyond doubt, check the return
  status of any operation (such as a memory allocation) which can fail.  The
  fact of the matter, though, is that the resulting failure recovery paths
  are, probably, completely untested.  Untested code tends to be broken code;
  you could be much more confident of your code if all those error-handling
  paths had been exercised a few times.
  
  The kernel provides a fault injection framework which can do exactly that,
  especially where memory allocations are involved.  With fault injection
  enabled, a configurable percentage of memory allocations will be made to
  fail; these failures can be restricted to a specific range of code.
  Running with fault injection enabled allows the programmer to see how the
  code responds when things go badly.  See
  Documentation/fault-injection/fault-injection.txt for more information on
  how to use this facility.
  
  Other kinds of errors can be found with the "sparse" static analysis tool.
  With sparse, the programmer can be warned about confusion between
  user-space and kernel-space addresses, mixture of big-endian and
  small-endian quantities, the passing of integer values where a set of bit
  flags is expected, and so on.  Sparse must be installed separately (it can
  be found at https://sparse.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page if your
  distributor does not package it); it can then be run on the code by adding
  "C=1" to your make command.
  
  The "Coccinelle" tool (http://coccinelle.lip6.fr/) is able to find a wide
  variety of potential coding problems; it can also propose fixes for those
  problems.  Quite a few "semantic patches" for the kernel have been packaged
  under the scripts/coccinelle directory; running "make coccicheck" will run
  through those semantic patches and report on any problems found.  See
  Documentation/coccinelle.txt for more information.
  
  Other kinds of portability errors are best found by compiling your code for
  other architectures.  If you do not happen to have an S/390 system or a
  Blackfin development board handy, you can still perform the compilation
  step.  A large set of cross compilers for x86 systems can be found at 
  
  	http://www.kernel.org/pub/tools/crosstool/
  
  Some time spent installing and using these compilers will help avoid
  embarrassment later.
  
  
  4.3: DOCUMENTATION
  
  Documentation has often been more the exception than the rule with kernel
  development.  Even so, adequate documentation will help to ease the merging
  of new code into the kernel, make life easier for other developers, and
  will be helpful for your users.  In many cases, the addition of
  documentation has become essentially mandatory.
  
  The first piece of documentation for any patch is its associated
  changelog.  Log entries should describe the problem being solved, the form
  of the solution, the people who worked on the patch, any relevant
  effects on performance, and anything else that might be needed to
  understand the patch.  Be sure that the changelog says *why* the patch is
  worth applying; a surprising number of developers fail to provide that
  information.
  
  Any code which adds a new user-space interface - including new sysfs or
  /proc files - should include documentation of that interface which enables
  user-space developers to know what they are working with.  See
  Documentation/ABI/README for a description of how this documentation should
  be formatted and what information needs to be provided.
  
  The file Documentation/kernel-parameters.txt describes all of the kernel's
  boot-time parameters.  Any patch which adds new parameters should add the
  appropriate entries to this file.
  
  Any new configuration options must be accompanied by help text which
  clearly explains the options and when the user might want to select them.
  
  Internal API information for many subsystems is documented by way of
  specially-formatted comments; these comments can be extracted and formatted
  in a number of ways by the "kernel-doc" script.  If you are working within
  a subsystem which has kerneldoc comments, you should maintain them and add
  them, as appropriate, for externally-available functions.  Even in areas
  which have not been so documented, there is no harm in adding kerneldoc
  comments for the future; indeed, this can be a useful activity for
  beginning kernel developers.  The format of these comments, along with some
  information on how to create kerneldoc templates can be found in the file
  Documentation/kernel-doc-nano-HOWTO.txt.
  
  Anybody who reads through a significant amount of existing kernel code will
  note that, often, comments are most notable by their absence.  Once again,
  the expectations for new code are higher than they were in the past;
  merging uncommented code will be harder.  That said, there is little desire
  for verbosely-commented code.  The code should, itself, be readable, with
  comments explaining the more subtle aspects.
  
  Certain things should always be commented.  Uses of memory barriers should
  be accompanied by a line explaining why the barrier is necessary.  The
  locking rules for data structures generally need to be explained somewhere.
  Major data structures need comprehensive documentation in general.
  Non-obvious dependencies between separate bits of code should be pointed
  out.  Anything which might tempt a code janitor to make an incorrect
  "cleanup" needs a comment saying why it is done the way it is.  And so on.
  
  
  4.4: INTERNAL API CHANGES
  
  The binary interface provided by the kernel to user space cannot be broken
  except under the most severe circumstances.  The kernel's internal
  programming interfaces, instead, are highly fluid and can be changed when
  the need arises.  If you find yourself having to work around a kernel API,
  or simply not using a specific functionality because it does not meet your
  needs, that may be a sign that the API needs to change.  As a kernel
  developer, you are empowered to make such changes.
  
  There are, of course, some catches.  API changes can be made, but they need
  to be well justified.  So any patch making an internal API change should be
  accompanied by a description of what the change is and why it is
  necessary.  This kind of change should also be broken out into a separate
  patch, rather than buried within a larger patch.
  
  The other catch is that a developer who changes an internal API is
  generally charged with the task of fixing any code within the kernel tree
  which is broken by the change.  For a widely-used function, this duty can
  lead to literally hundreds or thousands of changes - many of which are
  likely to conflict with work being done by other developers.  Needless to
  say, this can be a large job, so it is best to be sure that the
  justification is solid.  Note that the Coccinelle tool can help with
  wide-ranging API changes.
  
  When making an incompatible API change, one should, whenever possible,
  ensure that code which has not been updated is caught by the compiler.
  This will help you to be sure that you have found all in-tree uses of that
  interface.  It will also alert developers of out-of-tree code that there is
  a change that they need to respond to.  Supporting out-of-tree code is not
  something that kernel developers need to be worried about, but we also do
  not have to make life harder for out-of-tree developers than it needs to
  be.